2. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE 
             
             
             
                In this research, the writer makes use of some theories on code varieties or 
            code choices, by Janet Holmes as the main theory. The writer uses theory about 
            the characteristics of codes in analyzing the data. The supporting theories are the 
            theory of code choices, code switching and code mixing, also the social factor that 
            motivate people to choose a code. Besides those theories, the writer also reviews 
            some related studies which were previously done that have significant relation to 
            the writer’s thesis. 
                 
            2.1 The Main Theory 
              The writer uses Janet Holmes’ theory as the main theory of this study. She 
            divides the theories into two parts. The first is about the description of some 
            theories on language varieties and code choice, code switching and the social 
            factors. For the second part, the writer describes the supporting theory that is the 
            characteristics of each variety. 
             
            2.1.1. The Theory of Language Varieties  
                Hudson (1980, p. 24) defines variety of language as a set of linguistic 
            items with similar social distribution. Variety of language is the language or 
            languages used by a particular person. The use of the variety is related to the 
            society, in other words, depends on whom, and when, the varieties are used. The 
            term variety of language or variety covers languages, dialects, and registers.  
                Holmes (1982, p. 6) states that linguistic variation is used to express and 
            reflect social factors. Linguistic variation occurs in the level of vocabulary or 
            word choice, morphology, and syntax. Within each level there is variation which 
            offers the speaker to choose an expression. Choices may involve different dialects 
            of a language, or different languages. 
                 
                 
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                  According to Wardaugh (1986, p. 99-100), a code is a neutral term and it 
            refers to any kind of system that two or more people employ for communication. 
            When people open their mouth to speak, they have to choose a particular code to 
            express their thought or feelings. Moreover, when both participants share more 
            than one variety, then other factor will contribute to the appropriate choice. 
            Whereas, Holmes (1992, p. 51) states that codes are likely to vary according to 
            many different factors such as, which codes are involved in communication, the 
            function of the particular switch, and also the level of proficiency in each code of 
            people switching. In this case, a person may start speaking one code and then 
            deliberately change to another code in the middle of their speech, or sometimes 
            even in the middle of a sentence. 
             
            2.1.2. Code switching and code mixing 
              According to Hudson (1980, p. 56), code switching is a situational in 
            which a single speaker uses different varieties at different times. Moreover, 
            Holmes explains that code switching occurs when the speaker shift from one 
            language to another language or when the speaker switches from one code to 
            another. The switches are often very short and they are made primarily for social 
            reasons — to signal the speaker’s ethnic identity and solidarity with an addressee 
            (1992, p.41).  For instance, a speaker uses Indonesian in his conversation then 
            changes to Kupangese. In this case, the speaker may similarly switch to another 
            language as a signal of group membership and shared ethnicity with an addressee 
            (1992, p. 41). 
              Code-mixing, Wardhaugh (1986) affirms, is defined as the use of two 
            languages together by changing from one language to the other in the course of a 
            single utterance. The speaker may switch from language A to language B, because 
            they have motivations that influence the two codes such as solidarity with the 
            listeners, choice of topic, social status and cultural distance. As examples, 
            Wardhaugh gives Pfaff’s examples of conversational code mixing among 
            Spanish-English bilinguals. “No van a being it up in the meeting” (They are not 
            going to bring it up in the meeting), “Todas los mexicanos were riled up”. From 
            the examples, we can see that the speakers use the languages in their utterances 
                                                     
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            and this is often used by bilinguals, primarily as a solidarity marker. Furthermore, 
            Holmes (1992:50) states that code mixing is when a speaker mixed up codes 
            indiscriminately and it is very well motivated in relation to the symbolic or social 
            meanings of the two codes.  
              Furthermore, the writer uses some theories from Holmes about social 
            factors that influence people in choosing a particular code as supporting theory 
            that may explain why people switch code. 
             
            2.1.3. Social Factors  
              Holmes (1992, p. 11) states there are four components of social factors 
            that affect someone in choosing a code, which are: 
            • The participant: who is speaking and who are they speaking to? 
            • The setting/ the social context of the interaction: where are they speaking? 
            • The topic: what is being talked about? 
            •  The function: why are they speaking? 
                These four components are important to analyze and to describe the 
            variety used by the speaker. In this particular study the writer focused on the 
            participant, whom the Kupangese students are talking to. To be more precisely, 
            the writer focus on the ethnicity of the interlocutors. 
                  
            2.2. The Supporting Theory  
              People use more than one variety of language in a bilingual community. In 
            this case, the writer focuses on the varieties used by the Kupangese students. 
            These are the characteristics of varieties used by the Kupangese.  
             
            2.2.1. Indonesian variety  
                Janet Holmes (1992) affirms that standard variety is generally one which is 
            written, and which has undergone some degree of codification for example, in a 
            grammar and a dictionary. It is recognized as a prestigious variety or code by a 
            community, and it is used for H (High) functions alongside a diversity of L (Low) 
            varieties (p. 83). Moreover, Hudson said that a standard language is the only kind 
            of variety which would count as a ‘proper language’ (1980, p. 32). Standard 
                                                     
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            language is produced by the “standardization” of non-standard varieties, which 
            undergone processes as selection, codification, elaboration of function, and 
            acceptance. 
              The standard language in Indonesia is standard Indonesian known as 
            Bahasa Indonesia. It gains prestige among more than 400 local/regional languages 
            in Indonesia, since it was declared as the state language by the 1945 Constitution, 
            Section XV, Article 36. It has become the national and the only official language 
            in Indonesia (Nababan, 1979, p. 259). Standard Indonesian (SI) is formal 
            Indonesian that follows the rules of SI as stated in Tata Bahasa Baku Indonesia, 
            and used in formal situation (Depdikbud 1992). Furthermore, Oka (1987, p.135) 
            also stated that Indonesian is divided into two kinds of varieties, which are 
            standard Indonesian and non-standard Indonesian. The standard Indonesian is 
            commonly used in formal speech and it follows the standard rules of language. In 
            addition, it is not influenced by any kind of regional language for instance: tidak 
            bisa [cannot], bolehkah saya pergi? [May I go?], etc.  On the other hand, non-
            standard Indonesian is a variety of language which is influenced by regional 
            language and it is usually used in informal communication for example: nggak 
            bisa [cannot be], dikembali’in aja [just return it], ndak ada [There is not], etc. 
            Moreover; this is the variety which is used by the Kupangese students in the 
            analysis.  
             
            2.2.2. Kupang Malay (KM) / Kupangese  
                Kupang is the biggest city in Timor Island and its archipelago. It is the 
            capitol city of East Nusa Tenggara whose population constructed of a number of 
            distinct tribal, which has its own ethnic language such as ethnic Rote, Sabu, Alor, 
            Timor and also Flores. Based on the research done by P.W.J. Nababan (1979), 
            there are at least fourteen different languages in the island of Timor, which have 
            been little investigated. Some of these languages belong to the Malayo-Polynesian 
            family, such as, Atoni, Waikeno, Tetun, Galoli, Mambai, Takoda, Idate (p. 266). 
            In addition, the predominant group in West Timor is the Atoni speakers (p. 267). 
            On the other hand, the predominant group in the eastern part of the island uses 
            Kupang Malay as the first language. Although these languages are all the ethnic 
                                                     
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