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International Journal for Cross-Disciplinary Subjects in Education (IJCDSE), Special Issue Volume 1 Issue 1, 2011
Revisiting the critiques of Ivan Illich’s Deschooling Society
Jon Igelmo Zaldívar
Universidad Complutense de Madrid
Abstract attention to Illich’s Deschooling Society. However,
this effort has not been accompanied by debates in
Late in 1970, Harper and Row Publishers Inc. major academic journals. Consequently, works
started working on the first edition of Illich’s published in the early 1970’s in American and
Deschooling Society in New York. In the spring of French journals, such as Saturday Review, Social
1971 the book reached the libraries all over the Policy, Harvard Educational Review, The School
world. On this essay I attempt to tackle the most Review, Esprit and Les Temps Modernes, still
important biographical features of the author of this represent the most articulated critique of Illich
book. Thus, I go over articles, book reviews, books, studies. In the first articles it is possible to observe
and unpublished theses written by scholars from the detractors and defenders of Deschooling Society
United States, Germany, Canada, Australia, Great analysing the critical methods for study educational
Britain, Russia, Argentina, and France, which offer institutions. These arguments are eventually divided
various reactions to Deschooling Society. Most of between those against and in favour of the school
the analysis and critiques made on Illich’s book were system. That exactly happens with the first research
written in the early 1970’s. These publications were and books published in the 1970’s.
not related, strictly speaking, to scholarly research. The controversy over Illich’s book disappeared
In the last forty years there were only nine theses on in the 1980’s. At that time, international inquiry on
Deschooling Society. Although there has been a critical pedagogy focused on other authors and new
renewed interest in Illich since the beginning of the resources began to gain prominence amongst critical
twenty first century, there is little academic research scholars in the meanwhile. In the late 1990’s and the
opening new ways and articulating new first decade of the twenty first century new critiques
interpretations. Further research on Illich’s thought were done on Illich’s works as a result. Nowadays,
– not limited to Deschooling Society – would enrich Illich’s friends in Mexico propose to update his
current efforts to integrate Illich’s ideas into radical criticism against modern institutions within
innovative pedagogical proposals. the new political, economical and cultural context.
Many universities and research groups have started
1. Introduction revisiting his ideas in the United States and Canada.
It is important to mention that the first review
The history of the twentieth century pedagogy is dedicated exclusively to Illich’s thought, The
incomplete without mentioning Ivan Illich’s International Journal of Illich Studies [2], was
Deschooling Society [1]. This book still inspires published in 2009.
academic researchers who want to explore some of 2. Ivan Illich (1926-2002)
the most radical positions on education. It also
counts as a reference for people who want to Ivan Illich must be considered one of the most
research on the alternatives in education beyond the influential intellectuals on education of the twentieth
official system. Although Illich did not write much century. He was born in Vienna in 1926. In the
about educational institutions – just 18 articles since 1940’s he studied at the Roman Gregorian University
1968 until 1971–, all his writings are currently and he became a priest in 1951. Five years later he
essential to understand one of the most visionary traveled to New York in order to keep developing his
outlooks in the last fifty years in the history of academic career at Fordham University with Jacques
education. Illich’s book is still a reference point, in Maritain as his mentor [3]. In New York he got in
terms of what could have happened in the beginning touch with the Puerto Rican immigrant community
of the twenty first century in the western world, or settled in Manhattan. In 1956, with the support of
what kind of alternatives people could have Joseph Spellman, cardinal of New York, Illich
articulated in order to take out education and started working as a vice-dean in the University of
learning from schools. Puerto Rico [4]. At the age of 30 he was able to
In the last decade, educators trying to develop speak eight languages: Spanish, Portuguese, English,
new critical pedagogical approaches paid particular French, Latin, Italian, German and Croatian.
Copyright © 2011, Infonomics Society 618
International Journal for Cross-Disciplinary Subjects in Education (IJCDSE), Special Issue Volume 1 Issue 1, 2011
In the beginning of the 1960s Illich set up two was not too late to think of new ways of organizing
centers in Mexico and Brazil, where he organized people’s learning and build up their own educational
seminaries for missioners taking part in John XXIII’s institutions.
campaign in an attempt to modernize the Latin The first rough draft of Illich’s Deschooling
American Church [5]. In 1963 Ivan Illich, together Society was edited in Mexico by the CIDOC. In
with Valentina Borremans, opened a new center in September 1970 a volume titled The Dawn of
Cuernavaca, México, named Centro Intercultural de Epimethean Man and Other Essays [13] appeared in
Documentación (CIDOC). In this center people of the collection «CIDOC Cuadernos». It was in this
different nationalities organized many seminaries collection where the first chapters of Deschooling
dealing with a variety of topics. Some of the most Society were included. Most of these texts were
important intellectuals who spent time at the CIDOC written by Illich as a result of the works developed in
and took part in its activities were: Erich Fromm, the Alternatives in Education seminary organized in
Paul Goodman, Peter Berger, John Holt, Paulo Cuernavaca by Everett Reimer since 1968. In the
Freire, Augusto Salazar Bondy and Susan Sontang first edition of Deschooling Society he finally
[6]. published several months after this first rough draft
In the 1960’s Illich also promoted one of the seven chapters: “Why we must Disestablish School”;
most transcendental events against Church “Phenomenology of School”; “Ritualization of the
authorities [7]. Since 1960 he published several Progress”; “Institutional Spectrum”; “Irrational
articles criticizing the way in which the Catholic Consistencies”; “Learning Webs”; and “Rebirth of
Church took part in the programs promoted by the Epimethean Man”. All these chapters had appeared
United States for Latin America. He presented several months before in different journals,
several texts against the decision made by the magazines and reviews.
Vatican to support a model of progress and The first chapter of Deschooling Society was
development without concerning the situation in nd of July 1970, in the American
published the 2
Latin America and people’s needs. Most of these review New York Review of Books; the title given to
articles were published in the book entitled The the first publication was “Why We Must Abolish
Church Change and Development (1970) [8]. As a Schooling” [14]. Additionally, Kenneth Parsley
result, in the summer of 1968 the Congregation for encouraged Illich to write an article in order to
the Doctrine of the Faith requested Illich to close summarize the topics discussed by him at the
down the center in Cuernavaca and to finish his CIDOC in May 1970. The idea was to show
project in México. He rejected to follow the orders of arguments against schools to the people of the
Vatican authorities and decided to continue his work United States; arguments he had been working on
at the CIDOC. Thus, in 1969 the New York Times from his days in Cuernavaca. On the other hand,
published all the documents concerning Illich’s “Phenomenology of School” was the first essay
process against Vatican authorities. He finally presented by Illich on the 16th of February 1970 at
decided to continue being part of the Catholic Yale University [15]. Illich recognized that this text
Church without getting involved in its issues [9]. was the result of conversations with Hann Steger,
Late in the 1960’s Illich started publishing Fred Goodman, Paul Goodman and Peter Berger.
several texts in journals, magazines and newspapers The third chapter of Deschooling Society
all over the world. His aim was to criticize the main entitled “Ritualization of the Progress” was
modern institutions expanding their power at that introduced for the first time by Illich in the
time. As a consequence, he soon became one of the conference Technology: Social Goals and Cultural
rd
most famous radical critics of modern institutions Options in Aspen, Colorado the 23 of August 1970
and an important reference for people thinking on [16]. Its original title was “Schooling: the ritual of
new possibilities of changing the world. His books progress” and it was published in the journal New
rd
were a reference point that opened debates, York Review of Books, the 3 of December 1970.
discussing topics such as the critic of progress The fourth text was “Institutional Spectrum” and it
(Celebration of Awareness, 1970) [10], problems of was the result of the discussion held by Illich with
modern transports (Energy and Equity, 1973) [11], Valentina Borremans and José María Bulnes
and medicine (Medical Nemesis, 1975) [12]. Aldunate in Cuernavaca [16]. In this chapter Illich
However, Deschooling Society was probably the presents a very interesting way to define the role
book that reached the most significant impact in the played by different institutions in the modern world.
1970s. On this essay Illich gathered seven texts in From Illich’s point of view, schools were the most
which he showed his own perspective concerning malevolent institutions of modernity.
education in the second half of the twentieth century, “Irrational Consistencies” was the fifth chapter
analysing education in most of the countries of the of Deschooling Society and it was introduced at a
world. He considered it was the right moment to conference carried out by the American Educational
th
study the tragic consequences of promoting the Research Association in New York the 6 of
institutionalization of education. He claimed that it February 1970. Moreover, the text “Learning
Copyright © 2011, Infonomics Society 619
International Journal for Cross-Disciplinary Subjects in Education (IJCDSE), Special Issue Volume 1 Issue 1, 2011
Webs”, inspired in the guidelines discussed in a recognized it as a commendable piece of work, other
seminar at the CIDOC [16], was also published in critics stated that the alternatives offered by Illich
the New York Times Review of Books in July 1971. were utopian and had no practical direction or
The last chapter of Deschooling Society was “Rebirth application. Consequently, there was a clear division
of Epimethean Man”, text which was originally in all these approaches to Illich’s thought between
presented at a conference at the CIDOC to celebrate those who were against schools and those who
Erich Fromm’s birthday in 1970. The last work was defended educational institutions.
an attempt to present the Epimetheus perspective of John Ohlinger and Collen McCarthy [22]
proportionality as an example to inspire a new world. published the first work to engage with Illich’s
Illich considered it the key chapter of the book [17]. Deschooling Society. Its title was Lifelong Learning
Nevertheless, Illich did not pay too much or Lifelong Schooling? A Tentative View of the Ideas
attention to educational issues after the publication of of Ivan Illich with a Quotational Bibliography,
Deschooling Society. He focused on other topics in published in July 1971, just a few months after
his later works and came to considered he had made Illich’s text. On this research Ohlinger and McCarthy
some mistakes in his book about education. Thus, in introduced Illich’s thought and the relevant features
the 1980s and 1990s he published significant books of his critic analysis regarding educational
about the history of the Western civilisation: Shadow institutions. They also described the resources used
Work (1980) [18], Gender (1983) [19], In the Mirror in great detail; which formed the core of the work
of the Past (1989) [20], and In the Vineyard of the prepared by Illich during a seminar held in the
Text (1993) [21]. At that time he was interested in College of Education at Ohio State University a few
conducting researches on the new cultural turning months before, in the winter of 1971.
point of the Western world under the influence of Despite this early work, critical attention on
new technologies, especially on the way in which Deschooling Society did not flourish until late 1971,
Western thought has been changing under the reaching its zenith in the mid-seventies. One of the
influence of the screen as an axial metaphor. earliest articles on Illich’s thinking, “All Schooled
Meanwhile, some scholars in the educational Up”, was published by Colin Greer [23] in Saturday
academic context started studying his theses on Review in October 1971. In this text Illich was
education as well as some grassroots movements pigeonholed as a utopian anarchist intellectual who
tried to open new educational practices following the wanted to break down the modern state. According
alternatives defended by Illich in Deschooling to Greer the most important mistake in Deschooling
Society. In the beginning of the twenty first century Society was that the author endorsed deschooling the
new approaches about Illich’s ideas on education educational system without establishing a step by
arose in the context of pedagogy. After his death in step guide for transforming one of the most
2002 it was possible to identify at least three new important institutions in the world.
ways to articulate Illich´s critical thought on In 1972 the journal Social Policy published a
educational institutions. First of all, some researches sequence of articles with the aim of responding to the
have analysed Deschooling Society trying to ideas stated by Illich. In the issue of
articulate a theory organizing a new learning January/February and March/April seven texts
perspective opened by the web 2.0 tools in the new appeared in a section entitled “Illich, Pro and Con”:
context of social networking. On the other hand, “My Ivan Illich problem” by Neil Postman [24];
within the homeschooling movement new radical “After Deschooling, Free Learning” by Ronald Gross
perspectives have arisen: the unschooling, for [25]; “Need For a Risk Quotient” by Roy Fairfiel
instance, whereby defenders not only advocate for [26]; “Taking Illich seriously” by M. Rosen Sumner
the structure of children’s education outside schools [27]; “After Illich, What?” by Judson Jerome [28];
but also decided not to follow the school rules when “And It Still Is News” by Maxine Green [29]; and
structuring children’s education. To conclude, many “The Case for Schooling America” by Arthur Pearl
groups and researchers are working on Ivan Illich’s [30].
texts on education by putting them into practice These seven articles published in Social Policy
within new grassroots movements, such as are excellent samples of the spectre of sympathies
indigenous movements or degrowth anti-capitalism and rejections towards Illich’s ideas. A great number
alternatives. It can be said that Illich is still a of authors found the book challenging, especially for
reference for all of them. those who work in the educational system. They had
traditionally thought that they were part of the
3. Literature Review solution in this troubled world but not the core of the
problem, as Illich stated. Nevertheless, even if
Most of the reactions caused by Deschooling considering Illich’s critique creative, most of the
Society emerged in the 1970’s. Although a great authors took the opportunity to defend schools in
number of authors found the book challenging for their articles; in fact, the alternatives offered by Illich
those who work in the educational system and
Copyright © 2011, Infonomics Society 620
International Journal for Cross-Disciplinary Subjects in Education (IJCDSE), Special Issue Volume 1 Issue 1, 2011
were often disqualified, seen as utopian and with no debat”. In this issue a group of French intellectuals
practical direction or application. responded to the controversial theses against schools
On the other hand, in the issue of February 1972 published in Deschooling Society. Amongst those
of the Harvard Educational Review appeared another who took part on this debate were Pierre Kende,
article in response to Deschooling Society. The Henri Peguignot, Paul Fraisee, Yves Goussalt, Jean-
author was Harvard professor Herbert Gintis [31] William Lapierre, J-P Chevènement, Pierre Causat
and his essay was entitled “Toward a Political and Michel Panoff.
Economy of Education: A Radical Critique of Ivan Yet in the 1970’s several articles arose in the
Illich’s Deschooling Society”. Although written from area of education with the aim of analysing,
the perspective of an economist, this work was synthesizing, or criticizing Illich’s ideas about
without doubt one of the most significant critical educational institutions. In Germany, Hartmut Von
texts against Illich’s theses. In his article Gintis Henting [34] published his book Cuernavaca Order:
recognized the importance of Illich’s book. He Alternativen zur Schule? (1971); in France was
admitted that his hypothesis was suggestive because published a book by Hubert Hannoun [35] entitled
he had broken with the tendency of thinking Ivan Illich ou l'école sans société (1973); in Great
developed after the Second World War. Illich did not Britain Ian Lister [36] finished his book
believe that improving the institutional mechanisms Deschooling: a Reader (1974); and finally, in
of educational institutions would improve or resolve Australia, Michael Macklin [37] launched his
social, economic and cultural issues. That was analysis of Illich’s book entitled When Schools Are
actually a new point of view at the beginning of the Gone. A Projection of the Thought of Ivan Illich
1970’s. (1976).
Despite Gintis’s interest in Deschooling Society, The division was clear in all approaches to
he observed mistakes in Illich´s methodological Illich’s thought: those who were against schools and
approach to educational institutions. From his those who defended educational institutions. Von
Marxist perspective, Gintis criticized Illich’s in his Henting and Lister, who had taken part in the
attempt of explaining the problems of industrial inar Alternatives in Education (organized by
sem
capitalism through an analysis of a part of the whole Illich at the CIDOC in Cuernavaca between 1971
system. According to Gintis, issues like alienation in and 1972), argued that it was necessary to break up
capitalist social and political structures could only be with schools and finish with their historical
explained by studying the means of productions in monopoly on education. In the meanwhile, Hannoun
the capitalist system, and not by analysing and Macklin labelled Illich’s book as extremist and
institutions used by capitalism to maintain its own radical, and ended up defending the social
structures. As a Marxist, Gintis could not accept that performance of schools. As a result, these studies
human beings’ thoughts, attitudes, and behaviours offered a minor variation on the controversy already
were linked to secular institutions like schools. raised in American reviews.
Nevertheless, Gintis was one of the few intellectuals Finally, in Prospects, UNESCO’s journal of
that, rather than taking a stand for or against schools, Comparative Education, a couple of texts were
tried to understand the method of analysis offered by published about the debate which began with Illich’s
Illich in his book. ideas. This international institution ended up getting
However, not all engagements with Illich’s ideas interested in the entire thematic seminar organized in
were critically negative. In the issue of 1974, The Cuernavaca. Going even further, in Learning to be
School Review (University of Chicago) published an Edgar Faure [38] supported that these new critical
article by Dididier J. Piveteau [32] entitled “Illich: works offered a new radical perspective, with the
Enemy of Schools or School Systems?” In this aim to de-institutionalize education and learning. As
publication, Piveteau supported Illich’s work and a result of the interest aroused, Prospects (which was
pointed out that Illich’s voice was necessary because probably the most important publication of
it did not allow people to neglect important ideas, UNESCO) published two more articles written by
and overall because, from a political logic Ricardo Nassif and Arthur Petrovsky, both criticizing
perspective, we get a little when asking for a lot. Illich’s analysis.
In France, meanwhile, two of the most The article published by Nassif [39] was one of
prestigious reviews addressed the debate about the first texts written by a Latin American professor
Illich’s book: Les Temps Modernes and Esprit. Les in response to Deschooling Society. The paper was
Temps Modernes, directed by Jean-Paul Sartre, entitled “The Theory of de-schooling between
published in the issue of July/August 1972 a new paradox and utopian”. In this work the Universidad
article by Gintis [33] entitled “Critique de Nacional de la Plata professor recognized that the
L’Illichisme”. In the text the Harvard professor approach to Illich’s thought was difficult; so his
stated the same arguments against the methodology book had several mistakes, tricks and absurd
offered by Illich. On the other hand, in March 1972 arguments. However, all these incoherences –from
Esprit released a monograph entitled “Illich en Nassif’s point of view–, had a close relation with the
Copyright © 2011, Infonomics Society 621
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