Special issue on lifelong language learning  5
                  A brief overview of lifelong 
                                                                  learning in Japan
              Keywords                                     Anthony C. Ogden
              lifelong learning, lifelong education, 
              social education, shougai gakushuu,         University of Kentucky
              shakai kyouiku
              Japan’s ministry of education, culture,     bio data
              Sports, Science and Technol-                Anthony C. Ogden is the director of 
              ogy (meXT) takes the position that          education abroad at the University of 
              lifelong learning, or shougai gakushuu,     Kentucky. He completed his Ph.D. at 
              encompasses not only structured             Pennsylvania State University in Edu-
              learning through schooling and social       cational Theory and Policy with a dual 
              education but also learning that takes      title in Comparative and International 
              place through sports, cultural activities, 
              hobbies, recreation, and volunteer          Education. Anthony’s recent publications 
              activities. This article presents an        include The view from the veranda: Under-
              overview of lifelong learning in Japan,     standing today’s colonial student (Ogden, 
              beginning with a brief historical outline   2008) and Ethnographic inquiry: Refram-
              of its development, from the Act for        ing the learning core of education abroad 
              Adult education of 1949 to the cur-
              rent national policy. Survey data on        (Ogden, 2006). Both articles were published in Frontiers: The 
              the extent of participation in lifelong     Interdisciplinary Journal of Education Abroad. He has a forthcom-
              learning opportunities is presented         ing publication in the Journal of Studies in International Education 
              and followed by a discussion of the         entitled, Initial development and validation of the global citizenship 
              government’s current rationale and          scale. Anthony lived in Japan for over eleven years, during 
              strategies for the promotion and ad-
              vancement of lifelong learning in Japan.    which time he served as the Director for the Tokyo Center of 
              Societal factors challenging meXT’s         the Institute for the International Education of Students (IES) 
              prioritization of lifelong learning are     and as a lecturer at Kanda University of International Studies 
              also discussed.                             .
              文部科学省は生涯学習に対して以下の見解
              を示している。 すなわち、生涯学習とは、                               ducators and the general public use many different terms 
              学校教育や社会教育を通じた体系立った学
              習のみならず、スポーツ、文化的活動、趣味、                              to refer to activities in the realm of adult education. In 
              レクリエーション、そしてボランティア活動を EJapan, social education and lifelong learning are the terms 
              通じた学習も含まれる、という見解である。
              本論は、日本における生涯学習の概要を提                         most frequently used to describe adult educational activities. 
              示する。具体的には、まず、1949年の社会教                      From the late 1940s to the mid 1980s, social education (shakai 
              育法から今日の国策に至るまでの日本にお                         kyouiku) referred to organized educational activities for adults 
              ける生涯学習の発展の歴史的概況を示す。
              そして、どの程度生涯学習に参加している                         and young people other than those provided in the curriculum 
              かの調査データを示し、日本における生涯                         of elementary and secondary schools or at institutions of higher 
              学習促進に関する政策を論じる。さらには、
              生涯学習に高い重要性を与えている文部科                         education (Gordon, 1998; Rausch, 2003). Even though this kind 
              学省が直面する社会的課題に関しても論議                         of education does not necessarily lead to specific vocational 
              する。                                         or professional qualifications, participants are motivated by 
                                                          intellectual curiosity, improvement in quality of life, or fun and 
                                                                          THE LANGUAGE TEACHER: 34.6  •  November / December 2010   
          TLT » Special Issue • lifelong learning
          pleasure. Lifelong learning (shougai gakushuu)            After a discussion of the rationale for lifelong 
          encompasses learning that takes place at all              learning, several national strategies for the 
          stages of life, whether formal learning at school         promotion of lifelong learning will be discussed. 
          or in daily life (Maruyama, 2009; Okamoto,                The paper concludes with a brief discussion of 
          1996). Consequently, this includes all types of           contemporary barriers to lifelong learning.
          social education activities (Gordon, 1998; Rausch, 
          2003). Lifelong learning has been the term most           Historical Overview
          commonly used in Japan since the mid 1980s to             The history of contemporary adult education 
          describe adult education activities.                      in Japan stretches back to 1949, when the Act 
             According to Japan’s Ministry of Educa-                for Adult Education was enacted (Fuwa, 2001). 
          tion, Culture, Sports, Science, and Technology            Emphasizing that learning occurs throughout 
          (MEXT), lifelong learning comprises two main              one’s lifespan, the law aimed to contribute to the 
          aspects, “the concept to comprehensively review           building of a democratic Japanese society and 
          various systems including education in order to           to extend the Fundamental Law of Education, 
          create a lifelong learning society and the concept        which was enacted in 1947 following World War 
          of learning at all stages of life” (MEXT, 2009, p.        II as a statement of the purposes and principles 
          1). MEXT takes the position that lifelong learn-          of Japanese education (Gordon, 1998). The act 
          ing encompasses not only structured learning              defined the roles of the national, prefectural, 
          through school and social education but also              and municipal education bodies, encouraged 
          learning that takes place through sports, cultural        the establishment of adult education centers 
          activities, hobbies, recreation, and volunteer ac-        (kouminkan) in communities throughout Japan, 
          tivities. Its official statement on lifelong learning     and provided local governments with financial 
          currently reads, “In order to create an enriching         subsidies to do so (Fuwa, 2001; Maruyama, 
          and dynamic society in the 21st century, it is            2009). There are now nearly 18,000 kouminkan 
          vital to form a lifelong learning society in which        located throughout the country (MEXT, 2009).
          people can freely choose learning opportunities              The idea of lifelong education was not intro-
          at any time during their lives and in which               duced in Japan until the 1970s. It was identified 
          proper recognition is accorded to those learning          as a concept relevant for Japanese society follow-
          achievements” (MEXT, 2009, p. 2).                         ing the publication of UNESCO’s Faure Report 
             This paper offers an introduction to lifelong          in 1972 (Faure, et al., 1972). Japan is said to have 
          learning in Japan, beginning with a brief histori-        been one of the few countries to make a serious 
          cal overview of its development and the current           attempt to implement the recommendations of 
          national policy on lifelong learning. This will be        that groundbreaking report (Wilson, 2001). It was 
          followed with basic survey data on the extent of          to be another ten years before the term lifelong 
          participation in lifelong learning opportunities. 
                              Figure 1. Historical timeline of lifelong learning in Japan
       6 THE LANGUAGE TEACHER online »  
                                                                     ogden: A brief overview of lifelong learning in Japan
       learning would be used officially in Japan. In         that, “Society shall be made to allow all citizens 
       1982, the National Central Advisory Committee          to continue to learn throughout their lives, on 
       for Education (NCACE) addressed the original           all occasions and in all places, and apply the 
       concepts of lifelong education and lifelong learn-     outcomes of lifelong learning appropriately to 
       ing, clarifying the inter-relationship between the     refine themselves and leading a fulfilling life” 
       two. NCACE released a second report in 1990            (MEXT, 2006, Article 3).
       that suggested to the government that it establish 
       promotional systems and administrative divi-           Current lifelong learning and social 
       sions for the development of lifelong learning         education policy 
       throughout Japan.                                      Since the 1990s, the notion of lifelong learning 
         Shortly thereafter in 1990, the Law Concerning       has become increasingly well understood in 
       the Development of Implementation Systems              Japan. In a national opinion survey conducted 
       and Other Measures for the Promotion of Life-          in 2000, 74% of the respondents were already 
       long Learning (or Lifelong Learning Promotion          familiar with the term (Yamaguchi, 2001). 
       Law) was established. This law provided for the        Lifelong learning opportunities are now readily 
       establishment of Lifelong Learning Councils at         available throughout the country and enjoy the 
       national and prefectural levels, support for local     support of both local and national governments. 
       promotion of lifelong learning, provisions for         Central to these efforts is MEXT and its policies 
       development of lifelong learning in designated         concerning lifelong learning in Japan. In fact, 
       communities, and surveys for assessing the             8.5% of MEXT’s 2007 fiscal year budget was 
       learning needs of prefectural residents (Gordon,       allocated to lifelong learning, or the equivalent of 
       1998). It also established the National Advisory       452.5 billion yen (MEXT, 2007). National policies 
       Committee for Lifelong Learning (NACLL),               focus on the following three strategic areas. 
       which has since been folded into the Central 
       Council for Education. The Central Council car-
       ries out research and deliberations on important       Toward the realization of a lifelong 
       matters related to the promotion of education. A       learning society
       Lifelong Learning Subdivision was subsequently         Japan is moving steadily toward its goal of 
       established within the Central Council to focus        realizing a lifelong learning society in which all 
       on lifelong learning issues.                           people can participate in learning opportunities 
         Just over a decade later in 2001, MEXT was           any time during their lives and receive recogni-
       established through a ministerial restructuring.       tion for their achievements. To achieve this will 
       MEXT then established the Lifelong Learning            require that a comprehensive and diverse range 
       Policy Bureau, which remains today as the central      of learning opportunities be developed and 
       organization responsible for the coordination of       promoted. MEXT states that this will help in the 
       MEXT’s educational policies to promote lifelong        development of human resources which in turn 
       learning. The Bureau plans and drafts policy,          will significantly contribute to the overall devel-
       conducts research and analysis on the state of         opment of both the society and the economy.
       domestic and overseas education, and strives to 
       promote polices on information technology. It          Promotion of social education and support 
       promotes social education and develops various         for family education
       lifelong learning opportunities related to gender      Recognizing that social education plays a key 
       equality. The Bureau is also responsible for the       role in the realization of a lifelong learning soci-
       maintenance and enhancement of the University          ety, MEXT is determined to promote programs 
       of the Air and the advancement of specialized          to ensure that all strata of society, including 
       training college education (MEXT, 2009).               young people, the elderly, and women, are able 
         After sixty years, the Fundamental Law on            to participate in social education opportunities. 
       Education was amended in 2006. This law,               This involves volunteer activities to deepen 
       which articulates the fundamental purpose and          the sense of community among local residents, 
       principles of Japanese education, now provides         opportunities for parents to create networks to 
                                                           THE LANGUAGE TEACHER: 34.6  •  November / December 2010    7
          TLT » Special Issue • lifelong learning
          support child-rearing in local communities, and        Type of participation                      %age
          other activities such as audio-visual education 
          and human rights education.                            Culture (literature, history, etc.)        6.2%
          Improving the learning environment and                 Social issues (current social issues,      5.0%
          enhancing learning opportunities                       international issues, the environment, 
          MEXT is taking measures to improve the                 etc.)
          systems for promoting lifelong learning. This          Foreign language                           4.4%
          includes improving the learning infrastructure         Child-rearing & education                  3.0%
          on a national scale and providing support to           Other                                      0.6%
          local governments and the private sector for the 
          improvement of facilities such as public halls         None in particular                        54.7%
          and libraries as well as social correspondence 
          education and culture centers.                         Don’t know                                 0.5%
          Contemporary trends on lifelong learning                 
          participation                                         Reasons for participating in lifelong 
          In 1999, the Public Relations Office of the Cabinet   learning
          Office conducted a survey (MEXT, 2000) to             When asked about the reasons for participating 
          measure the extent of lifelong learning in Japan,     in lifelong learning activities, the majority of 
          focusing particularly on the type of activities       respondents said they did so because they enjoy 
          offered, patterns of participation, reasons for       learning and it enriches their lives (see Table 2).
          participating, and overall participation rates            Table 2. Reasons for participating in 
          within the public sector (Yamaguchi, 2001). This                      lifelong learning
          section shares some of those results. 
          Types of participation in lifelong learning            Reasons for participating                %age
          Enjoying hobbies and interests, such as music,         Enrich my own life                        52.4% 
          fine arts, flower arrangement, dance, and callig-      Help maintain or improve my health        43.1% 
          raphy were among the leading lifelong learning         Use in my daily life or local activities  25.1% 
          activities (see Table 1). 
                                                                 Use in my job or to find a job            24.5% 
               Table 1. Types of participation}in                 Acquire further knowledge and skills     17.9% 
                          lifelong learning
           Type of participation                     %age        Use in volunteer work                      11.9% 
           Hobby & interest (flower arrange-        22.0%        Acquire qualifications                     11.5% 
           ment, calligraphy, etc.)                              Use to instruct other people with           9.8% 
           Health & sport                           21.7%        learning or cultural activities
           Knowledge and skills necessary for         9.4%       Do not use                                  7.6% 
           work                                                  Other                                       0.1% 
           Domestic skills (cooking, sewing,          8.0%       Don’t know                                  0.7%
           dressmaking, etc.)                                      
           Knowledge & skills for volunteer           6.4%        Every three years, the Lifelong Learning Policy 
           activities (sign language, etc.)                     Bureau conducts a national survey on social 
                                                                education administration in Japan published 
      8 THE LANGUAGE TEACHER online »