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Working memory in children 1
Self-Ordered Pointing as a Test of Working Memory in Typically
Developing Children
1
Lucy Cragg & Kate Nation
Department of Experimental Psychology, University of Oxford, UK.
This is the author's post-print of the article. The definitive version was
published In Memory, Volume 15 Issue 5, 2007. This can be accessed here :
http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/content~db=all~content=a780327620
Abstract
The self-ordered pointing test (SOPT; Petrides & Milner, 1982) is a test of non-spatial executive
working memory requiring the ability to generate and monitor a sequence of responses. Although
used with developmental clinical populations there are few normative data against which to
compare atypical performance. Typically developing children (5-11 years) and young adults
performed two versions of the SOPT, one using pictures of familiar objects and the other hard-to-
verbalise abstract designs. Performance improved with age but the children did not reach adult
levels of performance. Participants of all ages found the object condition easier than the abstract
condition suggesting that verbal processes are utilised by the SOPT. However, performance on the
task was largely independent from verbal and nonverbal cognitive ability. Overall the results
suggest that the SOPT is a sensitive measure of executive working memory.
1
Address for correspondence:
Lucy Cragg
Department of Experimental Psychology,
University of Oxford,
South Parks Road, OXFORD. OX1 3UD, UK.
Tel: +44 (0)1865 271357
lucy.cragg@psy.ox.ac.uk
Notes. **p<.001, *p<.01, ºp<.05
Working memory in children 2
may not follow the same pattern (Conklin,
Introduction Luciana, Hooper, & Yarger, 2007). Although the
tasks may share domain-general processes
The self-ordered pointing test (SOPT) was involved in generating and organising the
developed by Petrides and Milner (1982) as a test sequence of responses, there may be domain-
of working memory for patients with frontal lobe specific processes involved concerning the aspect
lesions. The task takes the form of a set of of the stimuli to be remembered (location vs.
pictures of familiar objects or abstract designs, identity) which may develop at different rates.
arranged in a grid. These are presented in a The non-spatial version of the task is also useful
different spatial arrangement on each trial and the to use alongside the spatial version with clinical
participant is required to point to a different populations to determine if there is a general
picture every time. The test requires executive underlying deficit in monitoring and manipulation
abilities in order to organise and carry out a information in working memory, or a domain-
sequence of responses as well as to retain and specific problem dependent on the type of stimuli
constantly monitor the responses made. used.
Given its reputation as an executive task, the Studies using the non-spatial SOPT in
SOPT has been used as a test of working memory typically developing preschoolers
with childhood clinical populations that (Hongwanishkul, Happaney, Lee, & Zelazo,
demonstrate an executive deficit, such as children 2005) and school-age children (Archibald &
with phenylketonuria (Diamond, Briand, Fossella, Kerns, 1999) have indicated that performance on
& Gehlbach, 2004; Smith, Klim, & Hanley, the task improves with age. However, as these
2000), attention deficit hyperactivity disorder studies included the SOPT as part of a battery of
(Geurts, Vertie, Oosterlaan, Roeyers, & Sergeant, tests, a detailed assessment of developmental
2004; Scheres et al., 2004), oppositional-defiant changes is not provided.
disorder (van Goozen et al., 2004), and autism Most researchers using this task with children
(Geurts et al., 2004; Joseph, Steele, Meyer, & have administered the task following Petrides and
Tager-Flusberg, 2005). The majority of these Milner (1982), presenting the stimuli on paper
studies have administered the SOPT as part of a with three repetitions of the set sizes 6, 8, 10 and
battery of executive tasks in order to determine 12. However, the error score is often summed or
which executive components are deficient in the averaged across set sizes and as a result, changes
population being studied. However, there are few in performance as a function of task difficulty
developmental data available to interpret these have not been addressed. The present study
results against the level of performance for aimed to examine the effect of set size by
typically developing children in different age including it as a factor in the analyses. Previous
groups. studies have also collapsed the results across the
Normative developmental data are available three repetitions. Unfortunately however, this may
for a spatial version of the self-ordered pointing result in practice or interference effects being
task, which relies on the same underlying missed. We specifically examined the effect of
principles as the SOPT but requires remembering task repetitions, labelled ‘games’, to determine if
a sequence of locations instead of a sequence of repeating the task had a beneficial or detrimental
pictures. This is more widely available as a test of effect on performance. The reliability of
executive working memory in children (De-Luca performance across task repetitions was also
et al., 2003; Hughes, Plumet, & Leboyer, 1999; investigated.
Luciana & Nelson, 1998, 2002; Rhodes, Coghill, One aspect of the standard administration of
& Matthews, 2004) due to its inclusion in the the non-spatial SOPT which may be problematic
Cambridge Neuropsychological Testing when used with children is that when the pictures
Automated Battery (CANTAB), a widely used are arranged in a grid, a high score can be
measure of neuropsychological function. obtained simply by repeatedly choosing the same
Normative data for the CANTAB were provided location. This is prevented in adults using a
by Luciana and Nelson (2002) who showed that verbal warning if the strategy is adopted, however
the executive working memory skills tapped by this may be confusing to young children. To avoid
the spatial SOPT are not fully developed by 12 this scenario, we presented the pictures in random
years of age. While the normative data from the locations which changed each time a response was
spatial self-ordered task give us some information required. This meant that it was not possible to
on the developmental trajectory of executive consistently choose the same location.
working memory skills, the non-spatial version
Working memory in children 3
Another factor that may influence task adults to ensure that our modified task produced
performance is the availability of verbal encoding the expected pattern of results. This sample also
and verbal rehearsal strategies. To explore this, acted as a comparison group to help determine the
our task compared performance in an object age at which children reach adult levels of
condition (where pictures were easy to name) and performance. As well as examining changes over
an abstract condition where pictures were very development, the effects of set size and task
hard to label. Performance should be better in the repetition manipulations were specifically
object version of the task if children use verbal examined. We predicted that performance would
encoding to help remember the objects. be better in the object condition than the abstract
The level of verbal ability required by the task condition, due to the use of verbal labelling.
is an important factor to take into consideration Furthermore, we hypothesised that if the use of
when studying developmental populations who verbal strategies increases with age then the
may have concomitant or comorbid language difference in performance between object and
problems in addition to other deficits. Joseph, abstract conditions would also increase. On the
Steele, Meyer and Tager-Flusberg (2005) used the basis of previous research (Hongwanishkul et al.,
SOPT to test the hypothesis that children with 2005; Joseph et al., 2005) we predicted that
autism are impaired in using verbal encoding and language ability would correlate with performance
rehearsal strategies to aid working memory. Their on the object, but not abstract condition of the
results showed that the typically developing group task.
(aged 5;10-13;10 years) found a condition with
line drawings of objects significantly easier than Method
an abstract condition, suggesting that verbal
encoding was being used to help remember the Participants
objects. Furthermore, it appears that language Ninety children and 15 young adults
ability is correlated with performance on the participated in this study. Data were collected
object condition of the SOPT, such that children from 15 children in each of the following British
with better language skills are more successful. school year groups: Year 1 (5-6yrs); Year 2 (6-
Joseph et al. (2005) found that language level, 7yrs); Year 3 (7-8yrs); Year 4 (8-9yrs); Year 5 (9-
measured by the Expressive Vocabulary Test 10yrs) and Year 6 (10-11yrs). All of the children
(Williams, 1997) and the Peabody Picture attended state primary schools and were selected
Vocabulary Test (Dunn & Dunn, 1997) was at random by class teachers. Informed parental
significantly correlated with performance on the consent was received for all children that
object condition, but not the abstract condition of participated. Bilingual children and those with a
the SOPT, once age had been controlled for. The statement of Special Educational Needs were
same relationship was shown by Hongwanishkul excluded from the study. The young adults who
et al. (2005) in preschoolers and we predicted a participated were all students at Oxford
similar pattern of results in our own experiment. University, some of whom received course credits
The role of language abilities in task for taking part. Background information for all
performance may become more important with participants is presented in Table 1.
age as children become more reliant on verbal The Matrices and Vocabulary subtests of the
strategies such as rehearsal. We predicted that the Wechsler Abbreviated Scale of Intelligence
older children in our experiment would benefit (WASI; Wechsler, 1999) were completed by all
more from using verbal strategies in the object children. As shown in Table 1, performance was
condition of the SOPT than the younger children, close to average for all groups of children
and therefore that we would find a greater suggesting that the sample was representative of
difference in performance between the object and typically developing children. The adults
abstract conditions in the older children. This is completed only the Matrices subtest and as a
supported by evidence that verbal rehearsal group, they achieved scores in the high-average
strategies are not used to aid memory for pictorial range.
stimuli until after the age of 8 years (Halliday,
Hitch, Lennon, & Pettipher, 1990; Hitch & Apparatus
Halliday, 1983). The experimental task (available from
In summary, the present study aimed to www.psy.ox.ac.uk/lcd) was created and controlled
provide a more detailed analysis of SOPT using E-Prime software and run on a Dell laptop
performance in typically developing children. computer. The participants responded using an
Prior to testing the children we tested a sample of ELO touchscreen with a screen size of 304mm by
Working memory in children 4
Table 1 Participant characteristics
Age Gender Age (yrs) WASI Matrices¹ WASI Vocabulary¹
Group Male:Female Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD
Year 1 7:8 6.01 .33 53.7 10.7 50.0 8.04
Year 2 7:8 6.81 .25 56.3 11.0 50.6 7.99
Year 3 8:7 8.13 .28 52.1 12.5 52.5 13.3
Year 4 9:6 9.15 .24 52.2 9.10 52.1 10.6
Year 5 7:8 10.1 .32 49.9 7.68 59.4 8.68
Year 6 7:8 11.0 .24 48.2 8.14 55.2 11.7
Adults 5:10 19.4 1.35 58.6 5.82 - - - - - -
Notes. ¹T scores: M=50, SD=10.
three times at each set-size level to create
228mm. The touchscreen was placed three ‘games’, which differed only in the location
approximately 270mm from the edge of the table of the pictures on the screen. To distinguish
with an ergonomic mouse mat centred in front of between these, each game began with a brightly
it which acted as a hand-rest. The experiment was coloured screen, displayed for 2000ms to tell the
carried out in a quiet area in the school or participant whether it was Game 1, 2 or 3 and
university. The participants sat within another screen displayed ‘game over’ for 1000ms
comfortable reaching distance of the touchscreen when they had touched the required number of
and were asked to begin by placing their dominant pictures.
hand on the hand-rest. The children completed all conditions of
the task in a fixed order. The participants were
Materials and Procedure first shown a demonstration using four pictures of
Participants were shown a set of pictures and objects. They were then asked to perform the task
were required to touch a different picture on each themselves using first 4, then 6, 8 and 10 pictures
trial, until all of the pictures had been touched of objects. This was then repeated for the abstract
once. There were two versions of this task, one pictures but without the demonstration. Set size 4
using line drawings of objects, and one using was used as a practice and was therefore excluded
black and white abstract patterns. The line from data analysis. No feedback was given to the
drawings were pictures of objects taken from the participant at any stage of the task except to
online database of the International Picture- remind participants that they should not touch a
Naming Project, Center for Research in picture which they had already touched. There
Language, University of California, San Diego were no time restrictions yet all children
(Szekely et al., 2004). The objects were high completed the task in approximately ten minutes.
frequency words with an early age of acquisition.
The abstract pictures were kindly donated by Dr Results
Louise Phillips at Aberdeen University following
her use of the SOPT with older adults (Philips et Performance on this task was assessed in two
al., 2002). They were chosen as they were hard to different ways. First, the number of errors was
verbalise. Examples of both sets of stimuli are calculated, defined as touching a picture already
shown in Figure 1. selected. Second, following Joseph et al. (2005)
span was also measured, defined as the number of
consecutive novel responses prior to the first
error. A one-way ANOVA showed that there was
no effect of gender on the total error score (F<1)
for either children or adults. Therefore, gender
was not included as a factor in further analyses.
Due to unequal variance between groups, the
Greenhouse-Geisser correction was used in all
Figure 1 Examples of the object and abstract stimuli
used ANOVAs and the Games-Howell test was used
for post-hoc comparisons.
Each picture measured 43 by 43 mm and was
presented on a blue background. Set sizes of 4, 6, Reliability
8 and 10 pictures were used with a unique set of To examine the consistency between the
pictures for each set-size. The task was repeated object and abstract conditions of the task,
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