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                       CHAPTER 5: 
                            
                   SEQUENCE STRATIGRAPHY  
                            
                            
                            
                            
                            
                            
                            
                            
                            
                            
                            
                            
                            
                            
                            
                            
                            
          
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                                   5.1         Introduction 
                                               Current sequence stratigraphic concepts may clarify the controls on 
                                   distribution and extents, thickness, and quality of eastern Kansas coal seams.  These 
                                   stratigraphic parameters can influence coal gas content.  Sequence stratigraphy is the 
                                   study of sedimentation patterns and facies relationships within a chronostratigraphic 
                                   framework of erosional or non-depositional surfaces, or their lateral correlative 
                                   conformities (Van Wagoner et al., 1990; Posamentier and Allen, 1999).  Sequence 
                                   stratigraphy is used to analyze the ways that sedimentary basins fill, classify strata 
                                   into a predictive depositional framework for correlation, describe the spatial and 
                                   temporal relationships of a reservoir, and to correlate strata to global sea level records 
                                   (Posamentier and Allen, 1999). 
                                   Sequences and Sequence Boundaries 
                                               The depositional sequence—defined as a succession of relatively 
                                   conformable, genetically related strata bounded at the top and base by unconformable 
                                   surfaces or their landward or basinward correlative conformities—is the fundamental 
                                   unit of sequence stratigraphic analysis (Van Wagoner et al., 1990).  Sequence 
                                   boundaries are defined as unconformities, or landward or basinward correlative 
                                   conformities, that are laterally continuous over at least the basin scale and separate 
                                   older underlying sediments from younger overlying sediments by a significant 
                                   depositional hiatus.  Sequence boundaries may be recognized in well log, core, or 
                                   outcrop by one or more of the following criteria: 
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            1)  Subaerial erosional truncation (channel incision), laterally equivalent 
              subaerial exposure surfaces (developed paleosol profiles), and downdip 
              submarine erosion;  
            2)  Stratigraphic onlap onto a coast; 
            3)  Change from prograding parasequence set stacking pattern to retrograding 
              parasequence set stacking pattern;  
            4)  Downward shift in coastal onlap; 
            5)  Basinward shift in environments (landward facies directly overlying 
              basinward facies with no intermediate environments in between; Van 
              Wagoner et al., 1990). 
         Parasequences, Parasequence Stacking Patterns, and Systems Tracts 
            Whereas the depositional sequence (hereafter “sequence”) is the fundamental 
         unit of sequence stratigraphy, at a smaller scale, the parasequence is the fundamental 
         unit of the sequence.  Parasequences are genetically related stratigraphic successions 
         bounded by flooding surfaces, or their correlative conformities.  A parasequence 
         boundary is equivalent to a flooding surface with overlying facies showing a 
         deepening of depositional setting.  Parasequence boundaries have correlative surfaces 
         both on the coastal plain as an exposure surface, root horizon, or as localized erosion, 
         and basinward as an upward succession of facies suggestive of deepening 
         depositional setting.  A flooding surface does not always imply inundation of a 
         subaerially exposed surface.  A flooding surface may occur over paleosol, offshore 
         transition, open marine limestone, or any other depositional facies.  At some point 
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         within the sequence, flooding surfaces reach a maximum landward position known as 
         maximum transgression.  The horizon of maximum transgression within a sequence is 
         known as the maximum flooding surface (MFS; Van Wagoner et al., 1990). 
            Within a sequence, parasequences are classified into parasequences sets based 
         on predictive stacking patterns.  Parasequence stacking patterns are responsive to 
         variations of sediment supply and accommodation.  Parasequences can stack into 
         landward-stepping retrogradational sets, aggradational sets, and basinward-stepping 
         progradational parasequences sets—all belonging to various forms of systems tracts.  
         The lowstand systems tract (LST) is bounded below by a sequence boundary and 
         above by an initial flooding surface, and contains progradational or aggradational 
         parasequence-stacking patterns.  In the current study, fluvial deposits are considered 
         to be part of the LST, and are overlain by the initial flooding surface.  The 
         transgressive systems tract (TST) is bounded below by the initial flooding surface and 
         above by the maximum flooding surface, and contains retrogradationally stacked 
         parasequences.  Finally, the highstand systems tract (HST) is bounded below by the 
         maximum flooding surface and above by a sequence boundary, and consists of 
         aggrading or prograding parasequences stacking patterns (Van Wagoner, 1990; 
         Posamentier and Allen, 1999).  Systems tracts are arranged LST, TST, and HST 
         through one depositional sequence.