2
                                          Research Methods
            Learning Objectives
          This chapter would help the readers:
              •  to understand meaning and various types of research; 
              •  to acquaint with the research methods in psychology;
              •  to be familiar with techniques for collection of research data; and
          	   •	 to	reflect	upon	case	studies	about	research	cases.
                            An Opening Story: Challenges in Data Collection
           Choosing an appropriate research methodology and its execution is all the time a challenging 
           as	 well	 as	 an	 interesting	 experience	 for	 organizational	 researchers.	 Though	 research	 is	 a	
           planned effort on the part of the researcher, nevertheless with all the research preparations 
           done,	the	research	investigators	often	face	several	practical	issues	during	data	collection.	In	
           one such large research on occupational health of women, the researcher put all his efforts 
           to	contact	more	than	50	organizations	employing	women	for	the	purpose	of	data	collection.	
           While contacting the organizations individually, out of 50 almost 29 companies refused for 
           data	to	be	collected	from	them	on	the	grounds	that	the	information	is	confidential	or	it	is	
           not	their	policy	to	allow	any	outsider	for	collection	of	information.	It	became	very	difficult	
           for	the	researcher	to	collect	sufficient	data	from	the	remaining	21	organizations.	A	lot	of	time	
           was wasted on 29 companies which posed a huge challenge to the research investigator to 
           complete	the	data	collection	and	meet	the	time	line	for	submission	of	research	report.	The	
           researcher had to work very hard while drawing time from rest of his assignments and put 
           extra	efforts	to	collect	sufficient	data.	It	is	always	advisable	for	an	organizational	researcher	
           to	visualize	such	data	collection	problems	and	delays,	and	to	keep	sufficient	time	at	hand	for	
           such eventualities in order to meet the requirements of quality and quantity of data required 
           for	research.
          2.1 INTRODUCTION
          Students in college and university often experience lot of anxiety and questions before 
          they begin delving into any research activity or assignment, contemplating as to what 
          they should be looking for in research, how they should actually begin doing 
                                                                                Research Methods 27 
        the	data,	analysis	of	data,	research	case	examples,	Master’s/PhD	thesis	proposal	format,	
        Master’s/PhD	thesis	evaluation	and	finally	contents	of	a	completed	research	document.	
        2.2  OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH
        Every research is guided by a set of objectives which lay the foundation for its approach 
        and	search	for	query.	This	is	normally	the	second	step	in	any	research	after	the	review	
        of	 literature	 on	 the	 subject.	 A	 careful	 and	 comprehensive	 review	 of	 the	 published	
        literature	generally	guides	formulation	of	research	objectives	and	questions.	
            Writing a clear statement of research objectives is very important in the research 
        process, hence, this step must be carefully discussed with teachers, students, and 
        professionals	 in	 the	 field.	 Normally,	 the	 research	 objectives	 are	 drawn	 on	 the	 basis	
        of exhaustive literature survey done on the topic of research by visiting a couple of 
        libraries	and	the	Internet	search.	Sometimes	researchers	tend	to	avoid	this	step	which	
        is	a	basic	error	in	research.	Objectives	carefully	drawn	give	us	fair	opportunity	to	write	
        good	hypothesis.	C.R.	Kothari	(2008)	stated	that	the	purpose	of	research	is	to	discover	
        answers	to	questions	through	the	applications	of	scientific	procedures.	
        	   Though	each	research	has	its	own	specific	purpose,	the	research	objectives	can	be	
        broadly categorized into following four groups:
            Exploratory Research: When the objective is to gain familiarity with a phenomenon 
        or	to	achieve	new	insights	into	it.	
            Descriptive Research:	 To	 portray	 accurately	 the	 characteristics	 of	 a	 particular	
        individual,	situation,	or	a	group,	or	an	organization.
            Diagnostic Research:	To	determine	the	frequency	with	which	something	occurs	or	
        with	which	it	is	associated	with	something	else.	
          Hypothesis Testing Research:	 To	           Good to Know
        test a hypothesis of a causal relationship 
        between	variables.                            Normally,	 hypotheses	 are	 developed	 from	
                                                      the	stated	objectives	of	research.
        2.3  TYPES OF RESEARCH
        Research	can	be	carried	out	in	multiple	ways.	Years	of	research	by	the	scholars	has	
        brought out various types of research which help researchers to think about what type 
        of	research	suits	them	as	per	objectives	and	aims	of	their	research	inquiry.	
        	   A	variety	of	research	types	would	help	researchers	to	choose	between	the	appropriate	
        ones	that	would	go	with	their	research	requirements.	There	are	research	types	such	
        as descriptive, applied, quantitative, qualitative, longitudinal, clinical, and others that 
        would	interest	the	students	more	as	they	go	through	each	of	these	as	described	below.
        2.3.1  Descriptive Vs Analytical 
        Descriptive	research	is	to	describe	the	situation	as	it	prevails	in	the	present	scenario.	
        For	example,	describing	the	rate	of	accidents	at	workplace,	or	the	attrition	rate	across	
        different	industries	in	the	state	of	Maharashtra.	Descriptive	research	is	also	referred	as	
    28  Organizational Psychology 
    ex-post	facto	research.	It	describes	the	state	of	facts	or	variables	as	it	is	in	the	present	
    context.	In	this	method,	the	researcher	does	not	control	any	variables.	He	only	takes	an	
    account	of	what	has	occurred	or	is	happening.	In	analytical	research,	the	researcher	uses	
    the information or data derived from the descriptive method which provides a basis for 
    formulating further hypothesis looking at the different background variables as to the 
    proportion in which they exist, and also which variables can be included for further 
    analysis.	So	both	descriptive	as	well	as	analytical	researches	are	very	powerful	in	their	
    own	ways	to	help	the	researcher	find	effective	solutions	to	his/her	research	queries.
    2.3.2  Applied Vs Fundamental
    Applied	research	would	help	finding	an	immediate	answer	to	the	social	or	organizational	
    issues	or	problems	such	as	why	employees	are	not	satisfied	or	motivated	on	their	jobs.	
    Applied	research	method	would	assist	in	finding	the	determinants	of	job	dissatisfaction	
    or	low	motivation	and	the	like.	Fundamental	research	is	basically	theoretical	in	nature.	
    It	 does	 not	 find	 any	 solution	 to	 immediate	 issues,	 rather	 it	 extends	 the	 theoretical	
    framework bringing different ideas and variables together as to build a more holistic 
    or	multidisciplinary	basis	of	research.	Fundamental	research	is	very	useful	and	brings	
    together many perspectives on the existing issues whereas an applied research is more 
    practical	in	its	approach.	
    2.3.3  Quantitative Vs Qualitative
    Quantitative research refers to the extent or size of correlation between two or more 
    variables.	It	is	mostly	questionnaire-based.	It	is	expressed	in	terms	of	number	or	value	
    or	quantity.	Qualitative	research	would	give	depth	or	quality	to	the	research.	It	is	mostly	
    interview-based.	For	example,	quantitative	research	would	provide	us	the	degree	of	
    stress the employees are experiencing whereas qualitative research would give an idea 
    as	to	what	is	the	nature	of	this	stress	and	in	which	aspects	of	life	and	so	on.	Processes	
    underlying human behaviours, that is, studying the relationship underlying certain 
    critical behaviours and performance of employees, the research would be qualitative 
    in	nature	(Michael	Berkwits	1998).	Attitude	research	designed	to	find	out	how	people	
    feel	or	think	about	a	particular	subject	is	quantitative	research	(Paj	Waddington	and	
    Bull	Ray	2007).	Both	quantitative	as	well	as	qualitative	researches	would	be	necessary	
    for	an	effective	and	useful	research.	
    2.34  Conceptual Vs Empirical 
    Conceptual research refers to concept building or conceptualizing about certain problems 
    or	solutions.	Conceptual	research	is	useful	in	organizations	in	order	to	deliberate	upon	
    framing policies, formulating new rules and regulations which require broad conceptual 
    framework,	or	benchmarking	with	other	national	or	international	companies.	Empirical	
    research is more data based or has on experiential research approach to reach certain 
    conclusions	which	are	testable	and	generalizable	from	sample	to	population.	It	can	also	
    be called experimental type of research which can be based on social or organizational 
    experiments.	Both	these	researches	are	widely	practised	in	organizations.
                                         Research Methods 29 
     2.3.5  Longitudinal Vs One-Time Research 
     Longitudinal research requires thorough planning and implementation by a number of 
     experienced	researchers	and	investigators	involved	(Elisabetta	Ruspini	2000).	Generally,	
     it would require assurance of a large funding for travelling, printing of questionnaires, 
     analysis	 of	 data,	 publication	 support	 and	 the	 like.	 Based	 on	 longitudinal	 research	
     findings,	it	is	possible	to	develop	behavioural	trends	across	months,	departments,	cities,	
     cultures, for example, developing behavioural trends of unsafe and safe behaviours 
     responsible	for	accidents	and	injuries	in	organizations	or	its	units.	One-time	research	
     is of short or long duration but it does not prolong over the years as longitudinal 
     research	does.
     2.3.6  Clinical/Diagnostic Research
     Clinical	or	diagnostic	research	as	it	reflects	is	a	case	study	and	in-depth	study	about	
     an	individual	or	organization	to	find	out	certain	relationships	between	the	prevailing	
     issues	so	that	some	reasonable	diagnosis	can	be	drawn.	For	example,	the	studies	on	
     children with autistic or learning or behavioural disorders, or employee misconduct 
     or	prolonged	absenteeism,	habitual	low	performers.	
     2.3.7  Exploratory Vs Formalized Research 
     Exploratory research is basically conducted to explore the situation for portraying its 
     features	 so	 that	 it	 can	 be	 understood	 for	 drawing	 further	 hypothesis.	 For	 example,	
     portraying	 employees’	 profile	 in	 an	 organization,	 an	 exploratory	 research	 can	 be	
     very	useful.	Formalized	research	is	primarily	designed	and	conducted	with	a	specific	
     hypothesis	to	be	tested.	
     2.3.8  Historical Research 
     Instead	of	the	primary	sources	of	data,	the	historical	research	largely	depends	upon	
     archives,	documents,	and	secondary	data	such	as	previous	accident	records.	This	kind	
     of	 research	 is	 typical	 in	 the	 sense	 that	 no	 other	 research	 would	 utilize	 such	 data.	
     Sometimes	this	research	approach	is	combined	with	other	types	of	research.
     2.3.9  Conclusion Oriented/Decision Oriented Research
     For	conclusion	oriented	research,	the	researcher	designs	his	research	problem	or	enquiry	
     according to his concepts in mind and reaches certain conclusions but in decision 
     oriented research, his purpose of research is arriving at decisions for which his research 
     is	funded	or	supported	for	practical	solutions	to	the	existing	problem	at	hand.	
     2.4  RESEARCH METHODS/METHODOLOGY
     Research	 is	 the	 arrangement	 of	 conditions	 for	 collection	 and	 analysis	 of	 data	 in	 a	
     manner	that	aims	to	combine	relevance	to	the	research	purpose.	Research	methods	refer	
     to the techniques that are meant for conducting research till it succeeds in answering 
     research	questions.