Contents     i
                               CONTENTS ................................................................................ I
                               INTRODUCTION....................................................................................... V
                                 HAPTER               ECHNIQUES
                               C           1 SPM T                  ............................................................... 1
                               1.1      Scanning Tunneling Microscopy.............................................................. 2
                               1.2      Atomic Force Microscopy........................................................................ 5
                                        1.2.1Contact AFM................................................................................... 7
                                        1.2.2Non-contact AFM.......................................................................... 10
                                        1.2.3Intermittent-contact AFM.............................................................. 13
                               1.3      Magnetic Force Microscopy................................................................... 13
                               1.4 Lateral Force Microscopy.............................................................................. 15
                               1.5      Other SPM Techniques........................................................................... 17
                                        1.5.1Force Modulation Microscopy....................................................... 17
                                        1.5.2Phase Detection Microscopy ......................................................... 18
                                        1.5.3Electrostatic Force Microscopy..................................................... 20
                                        1.5.4Scanning Capacitance Microscopy................................................21
                                        1.5.5Scanning Thermal Microscopy......................................................21
                                        1.5.6Near-field Scanning Optical Microscopy......................................22
                                        1.5.7Nanolithography ............................................................................ 22
                               1.6      SPMs as Surface Analysis Tools............................................................ 26
                                        1.6.1Scanning Tunneling Spectroscopy.................................................26
                                        1.6.2Force vs. Distance Curves.............................................................. 27
                               1.7      SPM Environments................................................................................. 30
                                        1.7.1Ultra-high Vacuum........................................................................ 30
                                        1.7.2Ambient.......................................................................................... 31
                                        1.7.3Liquid............................................................................................. 31
                                        1.7.4Electrochemical.............................................................................. 32
                               1.8      Further Reading...................................................................................... 32
                                                           ii        Contents
                                                               HAPTER                    HE  CANNER
                                                           C                     2 T            S                      ................................................................... 35
                                                           2.1              Scanner Design and Operation............................................................... 36
                                                           2.2              Scanner Nonlinearities............................................................................ 39
                                                                            2.2.1Intrinsic Nonlinearity..................................................................... 39
                                                                            2.2.2Hysteresis....................................................................................... 40
                                                                            2.2.3Creep.............................................................................................. 42
                                                                            2.2.4Aging.............................................................................................. 44
                                                                            2.2.5Cross Coupling............................................................................... 46
                                                           2.3              Software Correction................................................................................ 48
                                                           2.4              Hardware Correction.............................................................................. 49
                                                                            2.4.1Optical Techniques........................................................................ 51
                                                                            2.4.2Capacitive Techniques................................................................... 51
                                                                            2.4.3Strain-gauge Techniques................................................................ 51
                                                           2.5              Tests for Scanner Linearity .................................................................... 52
                                                                            2.5.1Intrinsic Nonlinearity..................................................................... 52
                                                                            2.5.2Hysteresis....................................................................................... 53
                                                                            2.5.3Creep.............................................................................................. 53
                                                                            2.5.4Aging.............................................................................................. 55
                                                                            2.5.5Cross Coupling............................................................................... 56
                                                                            2.5.6Step Profile:  Hysteresis, Creep, and Cross Coupling in Z............56
                                                           2.6              Further Reading...................................................................................... 57
                                                               HAPTER                                 ROBES
                                                           C                     3 SPM P                               ................................................................... 58
                                                           3.1              Introduction ............................................................................................ 58
                                                           3.2              Cantilevers.............................................................................................. 58
                                                                            3.2.1Properties of Cantilevers................................................................ 59
                                                           3.3              Tip Shape and Resolution....................................................................... 60
                                                           3.4              How to Select a Probe ............................................................................ 65
                                                           3.5              Probe Handling....................................................................................... 69
                                                           3.6              Further Reading...................................................................................... 69
                                                                                                          Contents    iii
                                 HAPTER       MAGE  RTIFACTS
                               C           4 I        A            .............................................................. 70
                               4.1      Tip Convolution...................................................................................... 70
                               4.2      Convolution with Other Physics............................................................. 73
                               4.3      Feedback Artifacts.................................................................................. 73
                               4.4      Image Processing Capabilities................................................................ 74
                               4.5      Test for Artifacts..................................................................................... 75
                               4.6      Further Reading...................................................................................... 75
                                 HAPTER        EY  EATURES OF             S
                               C           5 K     F                SPM ................................................... 76
                               5.1      User Interface ......................................................................................... 76
                               5.2      Optical Microscope ................................................................................ 76
                               5.3      Probe Handling....................................................................................... 78
                               5.4      System Accessibility............................................................................... 78
                               Notes:..................................................................................................................... 1
                                    iv     Contents